Context:

The passage talks about the political and social changes that occurred in Europe and other parts of the world, including India, following the French Revolution. The revolution challenged the old systems where aristocracies and churches held most of the power. New ideas about freedom, equality, and individual rights spread across Europe, leading to debates and changes in society.

Key Political Ideologies:

  1. Liberals:
    • Main Goal: Wanted a society where people of all religions were treated equally.
    • They were against absolute monarchies and believed in having an elected government, where laws would be interpreted by an independent judiciary.
    • Not Democrats: They didn’t believe in universal suffrage (the right to vote for all adults). They thought only property-owning men should vote.
  2. Radicals:
    • Main Goal: Wanted a government based on the majority’s will, including support for women’s right to vote (women’s suffrage).
    • They opposed the privileges of the aristocracy and wealthy landowners but didn’t oppose private property, just its concentration in the hands of a few.
  3. Conservatives:
    • Conservatives were initially against change, but after the French Revolution, they accepted that some change was inevitable. However, they believed that change should happen slowly and with respect to the past.

These differing views often led to clashes during the period after the French Revolution, with varying responses to political and social upheavals in Europe.

Industrial Revolution and Social Change:

  • The 19th century was a time of massive social and economic changes:
    • Industrialization led to the growth of cities and factories, but also poor working conditions. Men, women, and children worked long hours in factories with low wages.
    • Many liberals and radicals sought solutions to these issues by advocating for reforms to improve the quality of life for workers.
  • The working class, including laborers, faced issues like:
    • Poor working conditions (long hours, low wages).
    • Housing and sanitation problems due to rapid urbanization.
    • They rallied behind political groups that promised reforms to improve their lives.

Rise of Socialism:

  • Socialism became a key political ideology by the mid-19th century, criticizing private property as the source of social problems.
    • Why socialism opposed private property: The argument was that individuals who owned property were more concerned about their own profit than the welfare of workers who helped produce wealth.
    • Socialists believed that property should be collectively owned by society to ensure fairness and focus on social welfare.
  • Different forms of socialism existed:
    • Cooperatives: Some socialists, like Robert Owen, believed in small cooperative communities where people worked together and shared profits.
    • Government intervention: Socialists like Louis Blanc believed that governments should encourage cooperatives and replace capitalist enterprises.
    • Marxism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels proposed that the capitalist system was inherently exploitative and that workers should overthrow capitalism and create a society where all property was collectively controlled—communism. Marx believed that the working class would eventually rise against capitalists and create a classless, communist society.

Support for Socialism:

  • By the 1870s, socialist ideas were widely accepted in Europe. Socialists formed an international organization called the Second International to coordinate their efforts.
    • Workers in places like England and Germany formed associations to demand better living and working conditions, shorter hours, and the right to vote.
    • Socialist parties were formed in countries like Britain, France, and Germany to represent the working class, but they never fully controlled any government until later in the 20th century.

The Russian Context:

  • Russia’s Economy and Society (Early 20th Century):
    • At the start of the 20th century, Russia’s economy was primarily agricultural. About 85% of the population worked in agriculture, which was much higher than in most European countries.
    • There was industrial growth in cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow with factories and craft workshops, but most industries were privately owned by industrialists.
    • Working conditions were harsh, with workers working long hours (up to 15 hours) in small craft workshops or factories, and the government often failed to enforce labor laws.

Key Terms and Concepts:

  • Suffragette Movement: A movement aimed at securing voting rights for women.
  • Paris Commune (1871): A significant uprising where the workers of Paris took control of the city and attempted to establish a socialist government, which was eventually crushed by the government troops but celebrated by socialists worldwide.

Competitive Exam Focus:

  1. Different political ideologies (liberalism, radicalism, conservatism) and their impacts on European society post-French Revolution.
  2. Industrialization’s effects on society: Social and economic changes in the 19th century, including poor working conditions and the rise of labor movements.
  3. The evolution of socialism, from cooperative movements to Marxism, and how socialist ideas spread across Europe in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
  4. Russia’s agrarian economy and the rise of industrialization, as well as the harsh working conditions in early 20th-century Russia.

Background of Social Unrest in Russia (1905)

  • In 1905, workers in Russia faced poor living conditions as wages fell while prices of essential goods rose. This led to widespread discontent.
  • Workers from Putilov Iron Works organized a strike demanding better wages, reduced working hours, and improved conditions.
  • Bloody Sunday (1905): A peaceful march led by Father Gapon was attacked by police and Cossacks, resulting in over 100 deaths and starting the 1905 Revolution. This led to a wave of strikes and protests across Russia, demanding civil rights and a constitution.

2. The Duma and the Tsar’s Response

  • In response to the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar allowed the creation of a Duma (Parliament) but was unwilling to share power.
  • The first two Dumas were dismissed quickly by the Tsar, who made changes to voting laws to favor conservatives, preventing any reduction of his authority.

3. The First World War (1914) and its Impact

  • World War I involved Russia, France, Britain, and later other nations against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria, and Turkey). The war became unpopular due to defeats and high casualties.
  • By 1917, over 7 million Russian soldiers had been killed. The war drained resources, leading to food shortages and widespread discontent.

4. Conditions in Russia during 1916-1917

  • Petrograd (St. Petersburg): Workers faced extreme shortages of food, and women played a significant role in strikes, particularly around International Women’s Day (February 1917).
  • Strikes and Riots: Workers and women workers led a series of protests. When police and cavalry tried to suppress them, soldiers began mutinying, and the Tsar’s authority weakened.

5. The February Revolution (1917)

  • February Revolution: In March 1917, soldiers and workers formed a Soviet (Council) in Petrograd, demanding change. The Tsar was advised to abdicate by his military commanders on March 2, ending over 300 years of Tsarist rule.
  • Provisional Government: A new government was formed by the Duma and the Soviets, but it struggled with reforms.

6. Role of Women in the Revolution

  • Women workers like Marfa Vasileva led strikes, demanding better working conditions and fair wages. Her actions inspired other women, and soon workers of all kinds joined the protests.

7. The Bolshevik Party’s Influence

  • April 1917: Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile, declaring that the war should end, land should be given to peasants, and banks should be nationalized.
  • These demands became known as Lenin’s April Theses. Though initially controversial within the Bolshevik Party, they gained support as discontent with the Provisional Government grew.

8. Rising Popular Discontent and Peasant Movements

  • The Bolshevik Party became more influential through the summer of 1917. Factory committees, trade unions, and soldiers’ committees began questioning the old order.
  • Peasants, encouraged by Socialist Revolutionaries, seized land between July and September 1917, calling for redistribution of land.

Key Terms:

  • Jadidists: Reformers within the Muslim communities of the Russian Empire, advocating for modernized Islam.
  • Real wages: The purchasing power of wages, or how much goods and services wages can actually buy.
  • Soviets: Councils formed by workers and soldiers to represent their interests.

Additional Insights for Competitive Exams:

  • 1905 Revolution: This event can be linked to the broader theme of social unrest across Europe. Revolutions in Russia were often triggered by bad economic conditions, poor leadership, and national demands for greater autonomy.
  • Duma and Tsar: Understanding the conflict between autocratic monarchy and democratic reforms helps in understanding many revolutions worldwide.
  • World War I and Revolution: The war was a catalyst for social change in Russia. In many revolutions, external wars weaken a government’s hold on power, and the Russian Revolution is a prime example.
  • Women in Revolutions: The role of women in revolutionary movements is often underrepresented, but their significant participation in strikes and protests marks a pivotal moment in history. Their participation often leads to larger social and political changes.

Changes after the October Revolution (1917)

  1. Bolshevik Opposition to Private Property:
    • The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, opposed private ownership. In November 1917, they nationalized most industries and banks (i.e., the government took control).
    • Land was declared public property, and peasants were allowed to take land from the nobility.
    • In cities, large houses were divided among families, and titles of aristocracy were abolished.
    • To symbolize the changes, new uniforms were designed for officials and the army, and a new Soviet hat (budeonovka) was introduced.
  2. Bolshevik Party Renamed:
    • The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).
    • Elections were held in November 1917 for a Constituent Assembly, but the Bolsheviks did not gain majority support. In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the Assembly, claiming that the All-Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic.
  3. Peace Treaty with Germany (1918):
    • In March 1918, despite opposition from their political allies, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk.
    • Over time, the Bolsheviks became the only political party in Russia, turning it into a one-party state. The secret police (initially called the Cheka, later OGPU and NKVD) punished those who criticized the Bolsheviks.
  4. Rise of Censorship and Disillusionment:
    • Many writers and artists supported the Bolsheviks for their socialist ideals, but some became disillusioned due to the strict censorship enforced by the Party.

The Russian Countryside’s Response to the Revolution

  • Peasant Reactions:
    • News of the revolution brought joy to many peasants who hoped for free land and an end to war.
    • Some estates were looted, and land was seized for redistribution among peasants.
    • However, some landowners, despite losing property, were treated politely by the revolutionary committees.

The Civil War (1918-1920)

  • Breakdown of the Russian Army:
    • As the Bolsheviks redistributed land, many soldiers deserted the army to claim land for themselves.
    • Opposition to the Bolshevik revolution came from non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and pro-Tsarist forces, who organized in southern Russia.
    • The Civil War escalated with fighting between the Bolsheviks (the Reds), Socialist Revolutionaries (Greens), and Tsarists (Whites), supported by foreign powers like France, Britain, and Japan.
  • War and Famine:
    • The war caused widespread suffering, including famine, banditry, and looting.
    • The White forces took harsh actions against peasants who had seized land, which caused them to lose popular support.

Bolshevik Rule and Economic Plans

  • Creation of the Soviet Union (USSR):
    • By December 1922, the Bolsheviks created the USSR, a union of multiple republics within the former Russian Empire.
    • Non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy, though these attempts at integration were not entirely successful due to strict policies imposed by the Bolshevik government.
  • Collectivization and Economic Planning:
    • The Bolsheviks implemented central planning to modernize agriculture and industry.
    • The government set economic targets through Five Year Plans (1927-1938). For example, between 1929 and 1933, oil, coal, and steel production doubled.
    • However, rapid industrialization led to poor working conditions. Workers faced harsh living conditions, especially in factory cities like Magnitogorsk.
  • Social Welfare Programs:
    • Schools, public health systems, and childcare facilities in factories were established, though the resources were limited.

Stalinism and Collectivization

  • Stalin’s Rise to Power:
    • After Lenin’s death in 1924, Joseph Stalin became the leader of the Communist Party and introduced drastic economic policies.
    • He initiated collectivization in 1929, forcing peasants to join collective farms (kolkhoz). This was intended to modernize agriculture by consolidating small farms into larger, state-controlled ones.
  • Resistance and Repression:
    • Many peasants resisted collectivization by destroying livestock, and those who resisted were severely punished (deported or exiled).
    • Collectivization led to one of the most devastating famines in Soviet history (1930-1933), resulting in the death of over 4 million people.

Repression under Stalin’s Rule

  • Purges and Forced Confessions:
    • Stalin’s government purged critics of collectivization and industrialization, accusing them of being conspirators against socialism.
    • Over 2 million people were imprisoned or sent to labor camps, with many tortured into making false confessions.

Global Impact of the Revolution

  • International Influence:
    • The Bolshevik revolution inspired socialist movements worldwide, leading to the formation of communist parties in various countries.
    • The USSR gained international recognition as the leading socialist state by the 1950s, although it was increasingly clear that the Soviet government’s actions contradicted the ideals of the original Russian Revolution.

Key Concepts to Understand:

  1. Bolshevism: A socialist ideology led by Lenin, advocating for the overthrow of capitalism and the establishment of a workers’ state.
  2. Collectivization: The consolidation of small farms into large, state-controlled collective farms to increase agricultural production using machinery.
  3. Five Year Plans: Economic plans set by the government to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union.
  4. Civil War (1917-1922): The conflict between Bolshevik forces and anti-Bolshevik factions, which resulted in the consolidation of Bolshevik power.
  5. Centralized Planning: A system where the government controls all aspects of economic life, including setting production targets and controlling prices.

THESE ALL ARE THE NOTES OF CHAPTER 2 SOCIAL SCIENCE. AND AFTER SOME TIME YOU GET IMPORTANT QUESTIONS HERE. *#THANKS FOR VISITING, VISIT AGAIN#* 😊